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42. Native words, classification, typical features
According to the origin, the word-stock of English may be subdivided into two main sets – native and borrowed.
Native Words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the Old English period.
69The native words are further subdivided into those of the Indo-European stock and those of Common Germanic origin. The words of Indo-European origin are mainly terms of kinship (e.g. father, mother, son), terms from nature (e.g. sun, moon, water, tree), names of animals and birds, (e.g. bull, cat, wolf), parts of the human body (e.g. arm, eye, foot), most frequent verbs (e.g. come, sit, stand) and others. A bigger part of the native vocabulary is formed by words of the Common Germanic stock. These words have parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic, etc. The number of semantic groups is bigger than those of Indo-European origin.
Their character is mainly general. E.g.: summer, winter, rain, bridge, house, shop, shirt, shoe, life, need, to bake, to buy, to learn, to make, to see, and many others. Native words constitute about 80 % of the 500 most frequent words in English. They may be characterized by a high lexical and grammatical valency (ability to combine with other words), high frequency and developed polysemy. They are often monosyllabic, have great word building power and enter a number of set expressions.
Most of the native words have undergone great changes in their semantic structure, and as a result are nowadays polysemantic, e.g. the word finger does not only denote a part of a hand as in Old English, but also 1) the part of a glove covering one of the fingers, 2) a finger-like part in various machines, 3) a hand of a clock, 4) an index, 5) a unit of measurement. Highly polysemantic are the words man, head, hand, go, etc.
43. Classification and periods of borrowing
| Period | Source | Examples |
| I BC | Latin | Butter, cheese, cherry, plum, pea, pepper, cup, kitchen, wine, etc. |
| V AD | Celtic | Toponyms: London |
| VII AD | Latin | Priest, nun, monk, candle |
| VIII-XI AD | Scandinavian | Sk-: ski, sky, skin. Husband, window, to call, to take, to die |
| XI-XIV AD | French (Norman) | Administrative terms: state, government Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime Military terms: army, war, soldier Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library Common words: table, plate, dinner, supper |
| Renaissance | Latin | Intelligent, to create, to elect, phenomenon, philosophy, etc |
| Renaissance | French Parisian | Ballet, machine, matinee, scene, technique, police |
| Different periods | Italian Spanish Dutch Russian | Piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel Negro, comrade Cook, skipper, deck Droshky, knout, shchee, sputnik, pryzhok |
Borrowing
1) process of adopting words from other languages to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, phenomena, etc.;
2) the result of this process (words and word building affixes borrowed into the language)
Extra-linguistic reasons: contacts of different kinds with other nations: wars, trade
Linguistic reasons: 1. to fill the gap in the vocabulary/ 2. to represent the same notion in some new aspect
44. Criteria and causes of borrowings
Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish).
Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms.
English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.
Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:
according to the aspect which is borrowed
There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.
according to the degree of assimilation,
Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).
Partial assimilation
(not assimilated grammatically: datum-data, nucleus - nucleai)
(not assimilated phonetically: garage-party)
(not graphically assimilated: cafe, queue, picturesque)
Barbarisms (not assimilated at all): curriculum vitae (Lat), carte blanche (Fr), siloviki (R), ciao
according to the language from which the word was borrowed. (In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French, Italian. Spanish, German and Russian.) Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc.
45. Assimilation of borrowings
Assimilation is a process of adjusting in Phonetics and Lexicology. The term Assimilation in Etymology is used to denote a partial or total conformation of a borrowed word to the phonetical.
There are three main types of Assimilation:
Phonetic Assimilation – the adjusting of the phonetic structure of a borrowed word to the phonetical system of the recipient language. Loan words not assimilated phonetically retain their foreign pronunciation like most of the French borrowings of the latest time, e.g. police, machine, ballet;
Grammatical Assimilation – a conformation of a borrowed word to the morphological standards of the receiving language. Grammatically assimilated loan words acquire English grammatical categories and paradigms, e.g. to count-counted-counting, sputnik-sputniks. Loan words not assimilated grammatically retain their foreign grammatical forms like some nouns borrowed from Latin which keep their original plural inflexions, e.g. phenomenon – phenomena.
Lexical Assimilation – a conformation of a borrowed word to the lexico-semantic system of the receiving language. It means that a borrowed word may participate in word building and develop its semantic structure, e.g. sputnik – to out sputniks, sputnikists. Foreign polysemantic words become monosemantic in the receiving language but a borrowed word may develop a new meaning in the receiving language, e.g. palate (the roof of the mouth) has developed a new meaning in English = taste, inclination and interest; and the new derivatives – palatable (tasty) and etc.
There is a noticeable group of words which are not completely assimilated graphically, e.g. ballet, café (with diacritic mark).
46. Influence of borrowings on the English language
The great number of borrowings in English left some imprint upon the language. The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. Due to its history the English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary.
Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups.
When borrowed words were identical in meaning with those already in English the adopted word very often displaced the native word. In most cases, however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use. e.g., the sphere of application and meaning of feed and nourish, try and endeavour, meet and encounter.
As a result the number of synonymic groups in English greatly increased.
The synonymic groups became voluminous and acquired many words rarely used. This brought about a rise in the percentage of stylistic synonyms.
Influence of Borrowings on the Semantic Structure of Words. As a result of the differentiation in meaning between synonymous words many native words or words borrowed earlier narrowed their meaning or sphere of application. Thus the word stool of Anglo-Saxon origin, which in Old English denoted any article of furniture designed for sitting on, under the influence of the French borrowing chair came to be used as the name for only one kind of furniture.
Due to borrowings some words passed out of the literary national language and have become dialectal.
47. History and new trends of English lexicography
The field of modern lexicography presents a great number and variety of dictionaries of all types. Within English lexicography there are monolingual and bilingual general dictionaries, etymological and present-day English dictionaries, those which deal with jargon, dialects and slang. Modern lexicography distinguishes between historical and pragmatically oriented or learner’s dictionaries. Pragmatically oriented dictionaries are those which side by side with meanings of words recorded in works of literature register functionally prominent meanings, thus giving the readers a clear idea of how the word is actually used in speech.
Modern trends in English Lexicography are connected with the appearance and rapid development of such branches of linguistics as Corpus Linguistics and Computational Linguistics.
Corpus-based Linguistics deals mainly with compiling various electronic corpora for conducting investigations in linguistic fields such as phonetics, phonology, grammar, stylistic, discourse, lexicon and many others. Among them The British National Corpus, Longman Corpus Network, Spoken British Corpus, International Cambridge Language Survey, etc.
48. The main problems of lexicography
The most important problems of lexicography are connected with: 1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion; 2) the arrangement of the selected lexical units; 3) the setting of the entry;
(1) The selection of lexical units for inclusion. The choice of lexical units for inclusion is the first problem the lexicographer faces. It is necessary to decide: a) what types of lexical units will be chosen for the inclusion; b) the number of these items; c) what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary; d) which form of the language, spoken or written or both, the dictionary is to reflect; e) whether the dictionary should contain obsolete units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms, and some others.
(2) The arrangement of the selected lexical units. There are two modes of presentation of entries, the alphabetical order and the cluster-type, i.e. when the units entered are arranged in nests, based on this or that principle. For example, in synonym-books words are arranged in synonymic sets and its dominant member serves as the head-word of the entry.
Entries may be grouped in families of words of the same root as in case of, for example, some general explanatory and translation dictionaries. The basic units are given as main entries that appear in alphabetical order while the derivatives and the phrases which the word enters are given either as subentries or in the same entry as run-ons that are also alphabetized. The difference between subentries and run-ons is that the former do include definitions and usage labels, whereas run-on words are not defined as their meanings are clear from the main entry.
(3) The setting of the entry. The most complicated type of entry is that found in general explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type. In such dictionaries the entry usually presents the following data: accepted spelling and pronunciation; grammatical characteristics including the indication of the part of speech of each entry word, whether nouns are countable or uncountable, the transitivity/intransitivity of verbs and irregular grammatical forms; definitions of meaning; modern currency; illustrative examples; derivatives; phraseology; etymology; sometimes synonyms and antonyms.
49. Types of dictionaries
According to the language used they can be:
unilingual (monolingual) - dictionaries in which the words and their definitions belong to the same language
bilingual or translation dictionaries are those that explain words by giving their equivalents in another language.
multilingual or polyglot dictionaries are not numerous, they serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in various languages
According to the nature of word entry
There are general and special dictionaries.
General represent the vocabulary as a whole.
Special dictionaries cover a specific part of the vocabulary.
There are dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, dictionaries of neologisms and slang, pronouncing and so on.
Dictionaries may be classified into linguistic and non-linguistic.
The latter are dictionaries giving information on all branches of knowledge, the encyclopaedias. They deal not with words, but with facts and concepts.
“The Encyclopaedia Britannica”
“The Encyclopaedia Americana”.
There exist also biographical dictionaries and many minor encyclopaedias.
Specialized Dictionaries:
phraseological
new words dictionaries
dictionaries of slang
pronouncing
reverse (words are arranged in alphabetical order starting with the end)
etymological
ideographic
rhyme dictionaries
concordances
50. Standard English variants & British dialects
Standard English — the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people. Local dialeсts are varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalised literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called variants. In Great Britain there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English, and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contains several (up to ten) dialects.
One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. “The Encyclopaedia Britannica” treats Cockney as an accent, not acknowledging it the status of dialect. Cockney is lively and witty and its vocabulary imaginative and colourful. Its specific feature not occurring anywhere else is the so-called rhyming slang, in which some words are substituted by other words rhyming with them. Boots, for instance, are called daisy roots, hat is tit for tat, head is sarcastically called loaf of bread, and wife — trouble and strife. It has set expressions of its own.
The study of dialects has been made on the basis of information obtained with the help of special techniques: interviews, questionnaires, recording by phonograph and tape-recorder, etc. Data collected in this way show the territorial distribution of certain key words and pronunciations which vary from region to region.
The Yorkshire dialect is known for its sing-song quality, a little like Swedish.
/œ/ > /u/, as in luck (/luk/).
the is reduced to t'.
initial h is dropped.
was > were.
“dance” and “daft” have [æ]
aught and naught (pronounced /aut/ or /out/ and /naut/ or /nout/) are used for anything and nothing.
Welsh English is characterized by a sing-song quality and lightly rolled r's. It has been strongly influenced by the Welsh language, although it is increasingly influenced today by standard English, due to the large number of English people vacationing and retiring there.
“ing” is [in]; [h] is present; “wood” in Eng has [u], in WE may have both [u] and [a]
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