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33. Methods of lexicology
The process of scientific research consists of the following stages:
observation, classification, generalization and verification. Observation is the collection of data. Classification is the orderly arrangement of these data.
Generalization is the formulation of a hypothesis, rule or law. Verification seeks the proof for the generalization.
Various methods of lexicological research are used for classification,
generalization and verification.: contrastive analysis, statistical methods of
analysis, Immediate Constituents analysis, distributional analysis, transformational
analysis, componental analysis.
34. Methods of theoretical grammar
Transformational analysis this method reveals two levels of syntactic structure1 deep structure, an abstract underlying structure interpreting the information and surface structure, syntactic features re Ruired to convert the sentence into a spoken or written version. They introduced a method of immediate constituents every unit consists of two elements: root andaffi- in words two words in a word combination.
New method glossemantics which studies the language as a system of signs using the methods of math! this system of signs is not related with the contectual meaning. London school uses the method of discourse analysis one of the modern methods of study is the comparative method when similar language phenomena are compared with those ofrelative languages! as well as with facts that hipothetically e-isted in the previous historical stages of development of the language. It helps to study ways of development and changes of the language the nature of borrowings the degree of assimilation.
35. Types of meaning. The structure of meaning.
From a linguistic perspective, we need to differentiate between lexical and grammatical meaning. Lexical meaning refers to the meaning of words that belong to one of the four lexical word classes. It is the aspect of meaning usually given in a dictionary. Important aspects in describing lexical meaning are syntagmatic relations holding between particular lexical items (bird:fly, blond:hair), as well as paradigmatic relations between words which have a similar meaning (red:blue). In contrast, grammatical meaning includes the meaning of grammatical items (e.g. function words and inflectional affixes), grammatical functions (e.g. subject and object), and different sentence-types (e.g. declarative and interrogative).
In modern English, the following words can be distinguished:
- simple and complex;
- non-derivatives (root) and derivatives;
- full base and abbreviations.
1) Simple words
The varieties of simple words are:
simple non-derivative words (simple roots) - red, leg, ask;
simple derivative words - helpless, disorder, outwit;
simple full-base words - back, room, take;
+ simple abbreviations - doc, prof, ref.
2) Compound words
The varieties of compound words are:
complex non-derivatives (complex root) - to blacklist, air-sick, home-made;
compound words - dark-haired, week-ender, horse-driven;
complex abbreviations (compound abbreviated words) - USA, V-Day, UNESCO.
A compound word is a word consisting of two or more stems (diver, earthquakes, steelmaker, foreign-made, red-haired, to daydream).
36. Polysemy. Patterns of polysemy
The fact of having more than one meaning:
Polysemy occurs when a word form carries more than one meaning.
Polysemy is exemplified by words like "run" and "set" each of which has a very large number of senses, many of which seem unrelated.
37. Synonyms, types of differences, neutralization
Synonyms are words that are similar to another word or have a related meaning.
Ex.: ability - capability, competence, skill
achieve - attain, accomplish, realize, reach
angry - furious, irate, livid
Despite the similarity of meanings, the difference between English synonyms, of course, it is precisely in the shades of meaning and characteristics expressed by this or that word.
Full
Synonyms, the dictionary meanings of which are almost completely the same. Among others, mentions and designations of professions to them.
Examples: to allow – to permit (разрешать); screenwriter – scenarist (сценарист)
Partial
This group includes synonyms that coincide in some dictionary meanings. As you know, words in English can have several meanings, and at some point some of them may turn out to be similar to the meanings of other words.
Examples: cold (холодный) – cool (холодный, прохладный) – chilly (холодный, пронизывающий, бодрящий) – frosty (холодный, морозный).
Emotionally non-identical
Synonyms denoting or describing the same object or phenomenon, but with different emotional connotations. Often they belong to different styles of speech, so you need to be careful with their use.
Examples: Go away! (Уходи!) - Get out! (Убирайся!)
38. Groups of words similar in denotative meaning (hyponyms, cohyponyms, correlation “part – whole”, antonyms, conversives, semantic derivatives, associative groups)
The denotative meaning of a word is its main meaning, not including the feelings and ideas that people may connect with that word.
A word whose meaning is included in the meaning of another word:
"Horse" is a hyponym of "animal".
Groups of words similar in denotative meaning (hyponyms, cohyponyms, correlation “part – whole”, antonyms, conversives, semantic derivatives, associative groups)
In linguistics and lexicography, hyponym is a term used to designate a particular member of a broader class. For instance, daisy and rose are hyponyms of flower. Also called a subtype or a subordinate term. A word whose meaning is included in the meaning of another word:
"Horse" is a hyponym of "animal".
Words that are hyponyms of the same broader term (that is, a hypernym) are called co-hyponyms.
For example, screwdriver, scissors, knife, and hammer are all co-hyponyms of one another and hyponyms of tool, but not hyponyms of one another.
Relation between two concepts (classes) or objects (instances) – ‘whole’ and ‘part’
class-level: every instance of the whole includes one or more instances of the part
instance-level: the whole instance includes the part instance
Part-whole relation Ex.:
A wife has a husband. - A husband is a part of a wife.
A sound has a pitch and a volume.- A volume is a part of a sound.
Changing nappies is part of being a mother.- Being a mother has changing nappies.
A book has pages. - A page is a part of a book
Antonyms are words that have contrasting, or opposite, meanings.
There are three different kinds of antonyms. Let’s take a look at each one:
Complementary antonyms have no middle ground. Examples include:
boy — girl, off — on, night — day, entrance — exit, exterior — interior, true — false, dead — alive, push — pull, pass — fail
Relational: These are similar to complementary antonyms, except that both must exist for them to be antonyms of each other. Check out these examples:
above — below, doctor — patient, husband — wife, servant — master, borrow — lend, give — receive, predator — prey, buy — sell, instructor — pupil
Graded: These antonyms deal with levels of comparison and they can be two words on a scale. Many are relative terms, which can be interpreted differently by different people. Examples include:
young — elderly, hard — easy, happy — wistful, wise — foolish, fat — slim, warm — cool, early — late, fast — slow, dark — pale.
Conversive antonyms (conversives) are words which denote one and the same situation as viewed from different points of view, with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles, e.g. husband – wife; teacher – pupil; to buy – to sell; to lend – to borrow; to precede – to follow. These antonyms are mutually dependent on each other and one item presupposes the other.
Semantic derivatives A derivative is a stem that is formed by combining a root with an affix that adds a component of meaning that is more than just inflectional.
The meaning of a derivative is determined by its context, not its parts.
Example:nominalized stems, such as generation from generate.
39. Groups of words similar in connotative meaning (emotionally coloured/emotionally neutral vocabulary, thematically groups, terminological systems, neologisms/archaisms)
The connotative meaning of a word includes the feelings and ideas that people may connect with that word.
Emotionally coloured words are contrasted to the emotionally neutral ones. The words of this type express notions but do not say anything about the state of the speaker or his mood. F: copy, report, reach, say, well are all emotionally neutral. Many words are neutral in their direct meaning and emotional under special conditions of context.
1) Interjections.They express emotions without naming them. F: Alas! Heavens! Hell! Nonsense! Pooh! E
2) Intensifiers. They convey special intensities to what is said, they indicate the special importance of the thing expressed. The simplest and most often used of these are such words as ever, even, all, so. There is also a big group of intensifying adverbs: awfully, dreadfully, frightfully, marvellously, terribly, tremendously and others.
3) Evaluatory words.They are words when used in a sentence pass a value judgement differ from other emotional words in that they can not only indicate the presence of emotion but specify it. When using the evaluatory words, the speaker is not different to the fact but expresses his scorn, irony or disgust. Usually the names of animals when used metaphorically have a strong evaluatory force. F: silly ass, parrot, pig, snake, wolf, a devil of a time, a hell of a success, an absolute jewel of a report, a mere button of a nose.
4) Emotive speech. Speech has numerous functions as to make statements, to express the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking about, his emotional reaction, his relations with his audience. He may wish to express his approval or disapproval.
A thematic group is a subsystem of the vocabulary for which the basis of grouping is not only linguistic but also extralinguistic: the words are associated because the things they name occur together and are closely connected in reality, e.g.:
terms of kinship: father, cousin, mother-in-law, uncle;
names for parts of the human body: head, neck, arm, foot, thumb;
colour terms: blue, green, yellow, red / scarlet, crimson, coral;
military terms: lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general.
Terminilogical systems are sharply defined. Terms are words or word-groups that name notions of a special field of Knowledge, industry or culture. Terms are monosemantic words. Polysemy is only tolerated if the term has different meanings in different fields of science: The meaning of word in linguistics and mathematics.
Archaism – words which were once common but are now replaced by synonyms (e.g. save 'except', hapless 'unlucky', betwixt 'between', etc.). The predilection of in vocabulary and syntax is the main feature of the extreme varieties of written English – the language of law, the language of religion and poetic diction. In this respect, religious, legal and poetic English are the only varieties, which allow to such an extent. Unlike the case with historisms (q.v.) the thing or notion denoted does not go into disuse.
Neologisms - is a newly coined term, word, or phrase, that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language.
Classification of neologisms:
1. A word in which the form & the meaning is new.
Ex.: audiotyping
2. The form is new, but the meaning has already existed in some other word
Ex.: big C – cancer
3. The meaning is new but the form existed
Ex.: bread – money
Greens – dollars
40. Homonyms (criteria for identifying, sources, types), paronyms, lexical variants
A word that is spelled the same as another word but that does not have the same meaning:
"Close" as a verb and "close" as an adjective are homonyms.
The most common definition of homonyms is: they are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least in one of these aspects, but different in their meanings. And their meanings are usually determined by the context in which they appear.
Homonyms are one of the most important sources of humor.
Mona: “Wherever I’m down in the dumps I buy new clothes.”
Lisa: “So that’s where you get them.”
To be in the dumps means to be in a bad mood. But the second meaning of the word dump is the place where rubbish is kept. So the word “dump” in the example is used in the first meaning.
There are a lot of sources of homonyms in the English language, here are the most important ones, according to my point of view.
1.phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development.
Night and knight, for instance, were not homonyms in Old English as the initial k in the second word was pronounced, and was not dropped as it is in its modern sound form.
2. borrowings mostly from Latin and French. A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaption, duplicate in form either a native word or another borrowing. So, in the group of homonyms rite n. – to write v. – right adj. the second and the third words are of native origin whereas rite is a Latin borrowing (Lat. Ritus). Fair, adj. (in the meaning of honest) is native, and fair, n. (“a gathering of buyers and sellers”) is a French borrowing.
3. Word-building the most important type in this respect is conversion (the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form). Such pairs of words as comb n. – to comb v., pale adj. – to pale v., to make v. – make n.
4. Shortening is a further type of word-building which increases the number of homonyms. For example, fan n. in the sense of “an enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor, singer etc.” is a shortening produced from fanatic. And its homonym is fan. In the meaning of piece of paper.
5. Words made by sound-imitation can also form pairs of homonyms with other words. For example, bang, n. (“a loud, sudden, explosive noise”) – bang, n. (“a fringe of hair combed over the forehead”)
There are three types of homonyms. They are homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. The first type is homonyms.
1. “A tailor guarantees to give each of his customers a perfect fit.”
The joke is based on the homonyms: 1. Fit, n.-perfectly fitting clothes; 2. Fit, n. –a nervous spasm
2. The second type of homonyms is homophones. And the following joke is based on a pun which makes use of another type of homonyms:
“Waiter!”
“Yes, sir!”
“What’s this?”
“It’s bean soup, sir.”
“Never mind what it has been. I want to know what it is now.”
Bean, n. and been, Past. Part. Of to be are homophones.
3. And the third type of homonyms is called homographs. These are words which are the same in spelling but different in sound.
To lead [li:d]- to conduct on the way, go before to show the way.
Lead [led]- a heavy, rather soft metal.
Bear (animal) and bear (carry)
lean (thin) and lean (rest against)
Somewhat related to homonyms are paronyms, i.e. words which are alike in form, but different in meaning. Paronymy is universal, not specifically English.
For example, the words capital and capital seem to be very similar, but they are from different Latin roots.
The word 'capital' has various senses, meaning punishable by death, principal, a seat of government, and wealth used in an investment.
We may distinguish three groups of paronyms.
(1) Words having the same root but different derivational prefixes.
e.g. precede - proceed, preposition - proposition, abnormal - subnormal
(2) Words having the same root but different derivational suffixes'.
e.g. popular -populous, carefree - careless, elementary - elemental
(3)-Word which originated from different sources and the likeness may be accidental.
e.g. absolute - obsolete', adopt-adapt, grisly — grizzly, affect-effect
Lexical variants, for instance, are examples of free variation in language, in so far as they are not conditioned by contextual environment but are optional with the individual speaker. E. g. northward / norward; whoever / whosoever. The variation can concern morphological or phonological features or it may be limited to spelling. Compare weazen/weazened ‘shrivelled and dried in appearance’, an adjective used about a person’s face and looks; directly which may be pronounced [di'rektli] or [dai'rektli] and whisky with its spelling variant whiskey. Lexical variants are different from synonyms, because they are characterised by similarity in phonetical or spelling form and identity of both meaning and distribution.
41. Stylistically marked vocabulary
Stylistically-marked words can be subdivided into two groups: formal and informal.
Formal words are appropriate in formal situations. The words of formal style fall into 3 groups:
1. Learned words
These words are associated with printed page. They are also called “bookish”. Modern prose is rich in them. They can be subdivided into:
scientific prose words – dry, matter-of-fact flavour words;
“officialese” – official bureaucratic words;
literary words – lofty words used in descriptive passages of fiction;
modes of poetic diction – high-flown words used in poetry.
2. Archaisms
These words are old and are not used in modern English. They are subdivided into:
obsolete words – very rare, cannot be understood without specialexplanation;
archaisms proper – can be understood because they were used in the XIXth century;
historical words – denote objects or phenomena which have disappeared.
3. Professional Terminology
They are words and phrases used by professional groups of people.
Informal words are appropriate in the immediate circle: family, relatives, or friends. The words of informal style fall into 3 groups:
1. Colloquial words
Colloquial words can be subdivided into:
literary colloquial – words used by everybody;
familiar colloquial – words used mostly by the young and semi-educated;
low colloquial – rough and coarse words used by the illiterate.
2. Slang
There is no exact definition of slangy words; slang is everything that is not included into the textbooks.
3. Dialect words
There are certain regional forms of the English language in which dialect words appear. The British dialects are Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western, Southern; the American dialects are Northern, Midland, Southern. For the United Kingdom received pronunciation (RP) is considered to be the standard, for the USA it is Uniform American English (Californian English).
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