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14. General characteristic of the principal parts of the sentence
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.
The subject is the principal part of the two-member sentence which is grammatically independent and may denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea.
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically independent upon the subject.
15. Noun – phrases. Constructions of modification
Noun phrases are groups of words that function like a noun. Typically, they act as subjects, objects, or prepositional objects in a sentence.
A noun phrase is a group of two or more words headed by a noun that includes modifiers
A noun phrase plays the role of a noun. In a noun phrase, the modifiers can come before or after the noun.
Note: A noun phrase can also be headed by a pronoun. For example:
the dog with fleas/the one with fleas
(This is a noun phrase headed by a pronoun. In the infographic, "None of us" is another example.) (e.g., 'the,' 'a,' 'of them,' 'with her').
It is to distinguish three sorts of noun phrases: (i) simple noun phrases, which contain only pronouns or nouns plus simple modifiers like articles, adjectives, demonstratives, or numerals; (ii) complex noun phrases, which contain more complex sorts of modifiers, like genitive or possessive modifiers and relative clauses; and (iii) various sorts of noun phrases which lack a head noun.
16. Verb-phrases. Constructions of complementation.
A verb phrase is the portion of a sentence that contains both the verb and either a direct or indirect object. Verb phrases can consist of one to three linking verbs, and action verbs, and sometimes any complements (such as objects or direct objects).
Ex.: She was walking quickly to the mall. /He should wait before going swimming. /Those girls are trying very hard.
Verb phrase complements are words and phrases that complete the meaning of a verb or verb phrase. Unlike verb phrase modifiers that modify or describe a verb or verb phrase, verb phrase modifiers complete the meaning of the verb or verb phrase. The two grammatical forms that can function as verb phrase complements are:
Prepositional phrases (The child boasted about her accomplishments. /Dinner consists of soup and biscuits.)
Verb phrases (My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon. (infinitive)/Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue. (base form))
The preposition of a prepositional verb functions as a verb phrase complement. The infinitive or base form following some catenative verbs functions as a verb phrase complement. The following sections define and exemplify the two grammatical forms that can function as the verb phrase complement in English grammar.
17. Two fundamental types of relations in Language
Crucial for the systemic description of language are the two fundamental types of relations between lingual units: paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. The term “syntagmatic relations” (SR) is derived from the word “syntagma”, i.e. a linear combination of units of the same level. Llingual units co-occur in the same actual sequences. E.g.: He started laughing. In this sentence we can point out а) syntagmatic, or linear relations between the sounds [h+i:] = [hi:]; [s+t+a:+t+i+d] = [sta:tid]; etc.; в) the morphemes are also connected syntagmatically within words: start+ed = started; laugh+ing = laughing; с) the combinations of words form syntagmas within phrases and sentences: He + started; started + laughing. е) Besides, the sentence can be connected with other sentences by syntagmatic relations in the process of communication, in speech, e.g.: He started laughing. Everybody thought it was rather odd.
SR can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.
Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.
Subordinate SR are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the other: teach + er – morphological level; main and subordinate clauses – sentence level.
Predicative SR are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary predication.
+The other type of relations, opposed to syntagmatic, are called paradigmatic.
Classical grammatical paradigms are those making up grammatical categories of words, or, morphological categories, e.g., the category of number or case of the noun: toy – toys; tooth – teeth; children – children’s, etc.
Sentences may be organized in paradigms according to the category “the purpose of communication”, in such paradigms declarative, interrogative and imperative sentence patterns of the same sentence invariant are opposed, e.g.: He laughed. – Did he laugh? – Let him laugh.
18. The external and internal side of the Language.
Language is a continuously evolving system. One of the earliest American English lexicographers highlighted that language living system continuously experiencing birth, growth, decay, and death. Accordingly, language changes as a result of external pressures, but it also subject to internal pressures.
External factors are related to historical, politican, social, and technological factors that affect language communities.
Language internal approach thus basically deals with the internal happenings within the language.
It can be described from two perspectives:
Paradigmatic – approach deals with relations between different concepts such as synonymy, antonym, hyponymy etc.
Syntagmatic – approach deals with relations between items coocuring within an expression such as collocational preferences, pleonasm etc.
19. The object and aim of stylistics. The notion of style. Approaches to style. The notions of foregrounding and convergence.
The object and aim of stylistics. The notion of style. Approaches to style. The notions of foregrounding and convergence.
There are 2 basic objects of stylistics:
— special linguistic means (stylistic devices and expressive means) which secure the desirable effect of the utterance;
— certain types of texts «discourse» which due to the choice and arrangement of the language are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication (functional styles).
The notion of style has to do with how we use the language under specific circumstances for a specific purpose.
Linguistic literature gives definition of the notion 'style'
A variety of the language traditionally used in one of the socially spheres of life that is characterised by a particular set of linguistic features, including vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. These are chiefly associated with the social and regional varieties, such as educated, colloquial, low colloquial, dialectal, uneducated, etc. From this point of view the most broad and well known subdivision in many national languages today usually describes these varieties as neutral, literary (high) and colloquial (low).
The principles of foregrounding may be used as an example of the more general approach to stylistics studies. Foregrounding may be perceived as formal underlining of the main contents in any literary work.
Foregrounding is a way of attention at definite elements.
Foregrounding forms expressiveness. Expressiveness is a property of the text or its part to convey a meaning with enhanced intensity and results in emotional or logical reinforcement.
The main type of foregrounding is CONVERGENCE
Convergence as the term implies denotes a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive.
20. Classification of functional styles as a debatable issue
The English literary language has developed gradually by a long and continuous progress a number of FSs easily distinguishable. The classification of FSs is one of the most disputable and difficult problems in Stylistics. The reasons for it are as follows:
FSs are historically changeable categories;
The boundary lines between FSs are not clearly cut;
The criteria of classification of FSs have not been defined yet.
Each FS is a relatively stable system at given stage in the language development, but it changes in the course of time, and sometimes considerably. The development of each style is predetermined by:
the changes in the norms of Standard English;
the changes of social conditions;
the progress of science and the development of cultural life in the country.
+The boundary lines between FSs are rather vague, because some FSs have common features. For example, the oratory style has much in common with thepublicistic style; while the latter has many similar features with thescientific prosestyle. Up to now the criteria of FS classification remains disputable. The majority of linguists speak about five FSs: the belles-lettres style, embracing all genres of emotive prose; the style official documents; the scientific prose style; the publicistic style; the newspaper style.
21. Simile. Epithet. Antonomasia. Allegory
Simile. A simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things in an interesting way. The object of a simile is to spark an interesting connection in a reader's or listener's mind. A simile is one of the most common forms of figurative language. Examples of similes can be found just about anywhere from poems to song lyrics and even in everyday conversations. An example of a simile is: She is as innocent as an angel.
Epithet – an adjective added to a person's name or a phrase used instead of it, usually to criticize or praise them. Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing, or a person in such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent than they actually are. Ex.: The singer's 104-kilo frame earned him the epithet of "Man Mountain" in the press.
Antonomasia is a literary term in which a descriptive phrase replaces a person’s name. Antonomasia can range from lighthearted nicknames to epic names.
Oftentimes, antonomasia is used to call attention to a certain characteristic.
Imagine that you have a friend who is a fantastic chef, and you want to say hello.
Normal sentence:
“Oh, look! Sam’s arrived!”
Sentence with Antonomasia:
“Oh, look! The great chef has arrived!”
An allegory is a simple story that represents a larger point about society or human nature, whose different characters may represent real-life figures. Sometimes, situations in the story may echo stories from history or modern-day life, without ever explicitly stating this connection.
Allegories are similar to metaphors in that both illustrate an idea by making a comparison to something else. However, allegories are complete stories with characters, while metaphors are brief figures of speech.
Ex.: George Orwell, Animal Farm. Animal Farm is a great example of allegory. In this farm fable, animals run a society that divides into factions and mirrors the rise of Leon Trotsky and the Russian Revolution. The story can be read as a fable of farm animals running a society, or it can be interpreted as the author’s criticism of communism.
22. Metaphor. Parts of speech that can be used metaphorically. Metonymy.
A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes an object or action in a way that isn’t literally true, but helps explain an idea or make a comparison.
Metaphors are used in poetry, literature, and anytime someone wants to add some color to their language.
Ex.:Love is a battlefield./ Baby, you’re a firework./ I am titanium.
Metonymy is the use of a linked term to stand in for an object or concept. You’ll find examples of metonymy used frequently in both literature and everyday speech. You might use it yourself without even realizing it.
Sometimes metonymy is chosen because it’s a well-known characteristic of the concept. A famous example is, "The pen is mightier than the sword," from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu. This sentence has two metonyms:
"Pen" stands for "the written word."
"Sword" stands for "military aggression."
23. Personification. Periphrasis (as a generic concept, including euphemism, poetic periphrasis etc.)
Personification – When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions to inanimate objects, he resorts to the stylistic device of personification (уособлення, персоніфікація). Personification is a special type of metaphor. Personified inanimate objects or things are substituted by personal pronounsheorsheand in most cases are written in capital letters:
Away, then, my dearest,
O! Hie thee away
To spring that lies clearest
Beneath the moon ray –
To lone lake that smiles,
In the dreem of deep rest,
At the many star isles
That enjewel its breast (E. Poe).
Periphrasis is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of its quality, most conspicuous features. It is a kind of figurative renaming of an object: ex. weapons – instruments of destruction; love – the most pardonable of human weaknesses; oil – black gold;
Euphemism is a word or word combination which is used to replace an unpleasantly sounding word or word combination.
Ex.: To die, to be dead: to pass away, to breath one’s last, to go west, to join the majority, to go the way of all flesh.
God: The Lord, the Supreme Being, Творець, Спаситель, Всевишній.
Devil or evil creatures: The Prince of Darkness, the Deus, the Evil One.
Common group of euphemisms are groups of:
1. colloquial expressions:
to hit the bottle, to tell stories, not right in the head, loo, etc;
2. medical euphemisms:
lunatic asylum – mental hospital;
idiot – mentally abnormal, insane, person of unsound mind;
cripple – handicapped, invalid, disabled;
3. political euphemisms:
starvation – undernourishment, revolt – tension, poor people – less fortunate elements, absence of wages and salaries – delay in payment.
24. Hyperbole and understatement. Oxymoron. Pun and zeugma as its manifestations among tropes
To add humor to your writing or to focus your readers’ attention, use hyperbole or understatement. Hyperbole and understatement are two sides of the same coin:
they both use distortion to make a point. Hyperbole is a figure of speech that makes something seem bigger or more important than it really is. It uses exaggeration to express strong emotion, emphasize a point, or evoke humor. Understatement is language that makes something seem less important than it really is. Look at the following examples.
Hyperbole: It rained enough yesterday to float a steel mill.
Understatement: You might say Albert Einstein had a good head for numbers
An oxymoron is a figure of speech containing words that seem to contradict each other. Sometimes they're used to create a little bit of drama for the reader; sometimes they're used to make a person stop and think, whether that's to laugh or to wonder.
dark light
deafening silence
deceptive honesty
definite maybe
definite possibility
deliberate mistake
devout agnostic
disgustingly delicious
divided unity
There are special stylistic devices which make a word materialize two distinct dictionary meanings. They are zeugma and the pun.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred.
"Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room ". (B. Shaw)
This stylistic device is particularly favoured in English emotive prose and in poetry.
The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and the pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect). The pun is more independent. Like any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context.
But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose. Thus the title of one of Oscar Wilde's plays, "The Importance of Being Earnest" has a pun in it, inasmuch as the name of the hero and the adjective meaning 'seriously-minded' are both present in our mind.
25. Inversion as a syntactical means of creating connotation. Kinds of repetition from the viewpoint of different textual units repeated.
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